The Popularity of the Dance Spectacle of Ancient Pantomime*
Pantomime was the most popular theatre entertainment of the Roman imperial period. Not to be confused with the modern theatre genre, ancient pantomime (pantomimus) was a form of competitive solo interpretive dance. Introduced to Rome in 23 BCE according to the late antique chronicler Zosimus (New History, 1.6.1):
*This was originally written for The University of Queensland's Friends of Antiquity newsletter, Nova in 2021.
The pantomime dance was introduced at that time, (it had not existed previously; Pylades and Bathyllus were the first to make it a career), as well as other things which remain to this day the cause of many evils.
The name pantomimus literally means “all mime” and given that one dancer performed all the roles without speaking, this is an appropriate name. The commonly male professional dancer used a small and wore a different mask for each role. Theatrical arts were commonly represented via their masks, and pantomime was no different. Pantomime masks were closed because the dancer did not speak (Lucian, On Dance, 29). Closed mouthed masks represent pantomime, like those in Figure 1. Direct comparisons with traditional theatre mask representations carved in the same Roman workshop can be made with Figure 2.
Pantomime dancers most commonly wore a long, light-weight garment called a tunica talaria. According to Lucian (On Dance, 63) these were made of fine silk. This garment was also used as prop (Fronto, On Speeches [to Emperor Antoninus], 4). The number of roles in a single performance cannot be determined definitively, but according to an epigram written during the reign of Augustus by Crinagoras (Palatine Anthology, 9.542) four was not beyond the realms of a talented performer:
The popularity of pantomime was owed to three major elements:
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| Figure 1: Papposilenus and youth pantomime masks. Carved in Rome, 54-80 CE. Vatican, Museo Chiaramonti |
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| Figure 2: Various masks. Carved in Rome 54-80 CE. Thought to have been found at Ostia. Vatican, Museo Chiaramonti |
Pantomime dancers most commonly wore a long, light-weight garment called a tunica talaria. According to Lucian (On Dance, 63) these were made of fine silk. This garment was also used as prop (Fronto, On Speeches [to Emperor Antoninus], 4). The number of roles in a single performance cannot be determined definitively, but according to an epigram written during the reign of Augustus by Crinagoras (Palatine Anthology, 9.542) four was not beyond the realms of a talented performer:
Never fear, Philonides; write a piece composed for four parts or even more; for neither yourThis highlights how in addition to athleticism and acrobatic elements there was an expressiveness through hand motions.
singing nor the motions of Bathyllus’ hands shall be lacking in grace.
The popularity of pantomime was owed to three major elements:
- the adaptability of the performance;
- the sex appeal of these dancers; and
- the competitive nature of their performances.
Pantomime could be performed in the theatres of the Roman empire regardless of their size. Pantomime
did not just adapt to different stage sizes, but also domestic spaces. The prevalence of theatrical decorations in houses in the first century CE might be a reflection of the popularity of private performances. Performances made on Rome’s grand stages were also performed in personal dining halls (Macrobius, Saturnalia, 2.7.17), and amateur dance was also exceedingly popular according to Seneca the Younger (Natural Questions, 7.32.3):
Unrest in theatres caused by the pantomime competitions was recorded in 14 and 15 CE by Tacitus (Annals, 1.54 and 1.77); deaths occurred in the crowd in 15 CE. Legislation was introduced to limit the dancers and their fans, with exile from Italy following in 23 CE (Suetonius, Tiberius, 37.2). Caligula recalled them after Tiberius’ death. Unrest and deaths accompanied competitions during the reign of Nero, which led to the dancers again being expelled from Italy (Suetonius, Nero, 26.2; Tacitus, Annals, 13.25). Later efforts, such as at the Saecular Games held by Septimius Severus in 204 C.E. attempted to keep performers in separate venues. These issues were not just limited to the city of Rome (Vettius Valens, 5.6(10).122; Libanius, Oration 41, 3).
Indeed, when Zosimus was writing in the late fifth to early sixth centuries, the pantomime dancers had been incorporated into the circus factions of the hippodrome at Constantinople, predominately the Blues and Greens. Alan Cameron suggested that the rioting which occurred between these factions was a result of pantomime and its ongoing popularity.
Their competitions provoked some of the worst behaviour that Christian writers associated with the Roman world, be it the unbridled sexuality of their performances, or the accompanying social unrest. The fact that these dancers continued to be recalled to the stages of the 850 plus theatres of the Roman empire is indicative of how their popularity continued to outweigh the trouble they caused. While some historians obviously had reservations about pantomime dance, those who filled the Roman Empire’s theatres to witness these spectacles had none.
did not just adapt to different stage sizes, but also domestic spaces. The prevalence of theatrical decorations in houses in the first century CE might be a reflection of the popularity of private performances. Performances made on Rome’s grand stages were also performed in personal dining halls (Macrobius, Saturnalia, 2.7.17), and amateur dance was also exceedingly popular according to Seneca the Younger (Natural Questions, 7.32.3):
The House of Pylades and of Bathyllus continues through a long line of successors. For their arts there are many students and many teachers. The acting-stage resounds in private homes throughout the entire city. On it both men and women dance. Husband and wives contend over which of the two may bare the flank more voluptuously.This quote shows how pantomime performances were sexy. Professional dancers not only had to be fit, but they also had to have specific body types which were not too tall, short, fat, or thin, as well as passingly attractive (Lucian, On Dance, 75 and 77; Libanius, Oration 64, 103). In addition to this, the themes were often very sexual (Lucian, On Dance, 2) and according to Juvenal (Satire 6, lines 61-5) they elicited sexual excitement among female audience members. The sheer sexual nature of these performances, especially their effect on women, is well attested in ancient sources. Famous affairs include Claudius’ wife Messalina with Mnester (Tacitus, Annals, 11.36.1-2; Dio Cassius 60.22.4-5), and the less likely Domitian’s wife Domitia with Paris (Suetonius, Domitian, 3.1; Dio Cassius 67.3.1). An early dancer, Stephanio was flogged for having a Roman matron accompany him dressed as a boy (Suetonius, Augustus, 45.4). As we know today, sex appeal always adds to a performer’s popularity. The last element which aided pantomime’s popularity was its competitive nature, both in the home and the stage. Dancers were reported to heckle one another mid performance (Macrobius, Saturnalia, 2.7.13-4), and Augustus was said to have complained about rivalries causing social unrest (Macrobius, Saturnalia, 2.7.19). Competition made individual performers stars who gathered followers, and this is likely the “evil” to which Zosimus referred.
Unrest in theatres caused by the pantomime competitions was recorded in 14 and 15 CE by Tacitus (Annals, 1.54 and 1.77); deaths occurred in the crowd in 15 CE. Legislation was introduced to limit the dancers and their fans, with exile from Italy following in 23 CE (Suetonius, Tiberius, 37.2). Caligula recalled them after Tiberius’ death. Unrest and deaths accompanied competitions during the reign of Nero, which led to the dancers again being expelled from Italy (Suetonius, Nero, 26.2; Tacitus, Annals, 13.25). Later efforts, such as at the Saecular Games held by Septimius Severus in 204 C.E. attempted to keep performers in separate venues. These issues were not just limited to the city of Rome (Vettius Valens, 5.6(10).122; Libanius, Oration 41, 3).
Indeed, when Zosimus was writing in the late fifth to early sixth centuries, the pantomime dancers had been incorporated into the circus factions of the hippodrome at Constantinople, predominately the Blues and Greens. Alan Cameron suggested that the rioting which occurred between these factions was a result of pantomime and its ongoing popularity.
Their competitions provoked some of the worst behaviour that Christian writers associated with the Roman world, be it the unbridled sexuality of their performances, or the accompanying social unrest. The fact that these dancers continued to be recalled to the stages of the 850 plus theatres of the Roman empire is indicative of how their popularity continued to outweigh the trouble they caused. While some historians obviously had reservations about pantomime dance, those who filled the Roman Empire’s theatres to witness these spectacles had none.
*This was originally written for The University of Queensland's Friends of Antiquity newsletter, Nova in 2021.
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